NC legislature passes resolution to seek creation of a national park in the southern Appalachians 1893

Weeks Law 1911 establishes forest reserves in the East -- in response to unregulated commercial logging that had by then removed nearly all primeval forest from New England, Great Lakes, and Deep South and was then underway in the southern Appalachians -- new forest reserves were intended to promote "conservation through wise use" such as practiced by foresters in Germany -- US government bought forest land for reserves (but left towns and settlements) and then leased timber rights

Organic Act 1916 creates unified National Park Service to administer national parks (all located in the West at this time) -- first eastern national park 1916 in Maine (now named Acadia NP)

US Congress 1925 authorizes surveys for other eastern national parks (possibilities include Smoky Mountains NC/TN, Shenandoah Mountains VA, Mammoth Cave KY) -- but allocates no funds for this work -- "no tax money for scenery" in the swinging 20's!

school children in TN contribute pennies and nickels for the park, citizens donate money in a door-to-door campaign, Knoxville and Asheville Chambers of Commerce pledge funds -- altogether $1M -- just enough to convince Congress that people in NC and TN want a park

US Congress 1926 authorizes acquisition of land for a national park in Great Smoky Mountains -- but again allocates no funds for purchase -- NC and TN legislatures authorize bonds for $2M and $1.5M respectively (about a quarter of the money required)

John D Rockefeller Jr donates $5M in 1928 on condition that NC and TN can raise a matching amount -- JDR Jr is son of JDR Sr who founded Standard Oil in late 1800's before laws that now regulate monopolistic corporations and became one of the wealthiest men in world -- son JDR Jr gives away enormous sums to develop national parks throughout the US (including Grand Teton NP and Virgin Islands NP) and to create Colonial Williamsburg -- Henry Ford on the other hand declines to help with land purchases

over 6600 parcels of land have to be acquired -- including small farms of original settlers, summer vacation property, and large tracts owned by timber companies which included nearly all of the remaining virgin forest -- many people sold their land and moved elsewhere -- but some people and most timber companies fought against condemnation (mandatory purchase) of their property -- legal proceedings included one case that went to the TN Supreme Court and two cases that went to the US Supreme Court -- and a fist fight on the floor of the TN legislature! -- eventually the right of governmental agencies to purchase land in the public interest prevailed in every case

Champion Fibre Company (paper manufacturer) owned most of the remaining virgin forest and most of the high peaks from Clingman's Dome to Mount Guyot including Mount LeConte -- Champion demanded $4 M for this land -- Tennessee Park Commission filed a suit 1930 for condemnation of the 40K acres on TN side -- court settled on a price of $2.5 M -- Commission argued that this price was still exorbitant -- instead offered $1.5 M -- and threatened to appeal -- at last minute, after three days of negotiation in Washington 1931, Champion accepted $3 M for all 93K acres of its land within the park -- TN Commission paid $1 M and NC Commission paid $2 M

US Congress 1932 grants lifetime leases to remaining settlers who did not want to sell (as these settlers died their land was purchased from their estates)

NC and TN could not raise enough funds to complete the last major purchases -- President Roosevelt 1933 authorizes $1.5 M from funds allocated by Congress to the Civilian Conservation Corps to advance land acquisition -- later Congress authorizes $0.7 M to complete land acquisition 1938 -- Great Smoky Mountains National Park dedicated 1940

of the $12.5 M needed for purchase of land, NC and TN provided $4 M (including both private donations and public bonds paid for by state taxes), US government provided $3.5 M, and Rockefeller provided $5 M (these figures from Frome cannot be reconciled with the rest of his account which suggests $4.5 M, $2.2 M, and $5 M, respectively, with over $1 M not accounted for!)

JDR Jr never set foot in the Smokies -- when invited to the dedication ceremony he declined on grounds that he did not wish his presence to distract attention from the dedication and hoped that the American people would enjoy the park in the reverent spirit of his mother

today Great Smoky Mountains National Park has the largest number of visitors of any national park (surpassing even Yosemite NP in CA) -- park roads are often grid-locked on summer weekends -- it is the focus of a major tourist industry in the region

GSMNP includes about 500,000 acres -- including largest tract of primeval/virgin forest in eastern North America (about 50-60K acres according to Horace Kephart 1925 [Frome 188] -- mostly high-elevation spruce/fir forest) -- nearly all of the hardwood forests at lower elevations were commercially clear-cut before they could be purchased

largest tract of virgin hardwoods left in North America is Joyce Kilmer Forest -- part of the Nantahala National Forest on the NC/TN border west of the Smokies -- it is a sight to behold -- most of the southern Appalachians (including most of the Smokies) looked like Joyce Kilmer Forest before logging between 1890 and 1920 -- Joyce Kilmer was a poet from NJ who wrote one good poem -- "Trees"

what can we learn from this history?   . . . about the Tragedy of the Commons?   . . . and about ways that human societies can overcome it and instead achieve cooperation in prudent management of resources?   . . . clearly, in this case, it was not easy!

Reference (good for the facts)

Frome, M. 1966. Strangers in high places: the story of the Great Smoky Mountains. Doubleday. Also later editions!