Conservation in a developed landscape (Orange County NC)

Human population

occupies nearly the entire landscape -- numerous small to moderate-sized towns and nearby cities -- population density moderately high -- agriculture is important especially in the northern half of the county -- but most people work in towns or cities

Wildlife

game animals (deer, mourning dove, turkey, ducks) -- numerous -- most do well in human dominated habitats when not over-hunted

native nongame animals (forest-interior birds, box turtles, salamanders, large mammals) -- populations all depend on preservation of forest habitat

management of wildlife -- NC Widlife Resources Commission sets seasons and limits for hunting of all game species -- hires biologists to determine conditions for maintaining game populations (including hunting seasons and limits) -- hires wardens to monitor hunters and to enforce regulations -- game are public property -- but policing prevents a Tragedy of the Commons

Habitat

forests of Orange County are steadily decreasing in total area and are becoming fragmented

property owners sell their land to developers -- or sell timber to chip mills who clear-cut the forests -- government (public) agencies "condemn" land (require owners to sell it) for public works (reservoirs, highways) -- developers and property owners vigorously resist ordinances that restrict their use of land -- even though developers create an overall environment with less desirable property

nongovernmental organizations (Triangle Land Conservancy) protect small amounts of forest -- so do other governmental and nongovernmental institutions (Duke University, UNC-CH, NC Wildlife Resources Commission, US Corps of Engineers) -- part of one state park (Eno River State Park)

Conservation

native wildlife in Orange County depends on intact forests and unpolluted streams associated with intact forest -- deforestation in eastern US reached a maximum early in this century -- forests increased again as marginal farms were abandoned -- in the last decade or so forest area is again decreasing because of development (conversion of forest land to intensive h uman use -- housing, highways, reservoirs) -- also forest fragmentation is increasing

forest-interior species are often area-sensitive -- so many small fragments of forest adding up to the same total area as a large block of forest do not contain the same number of species -- biologists not sure why some species are area-sensitive - - current evidence suggests that edges of forests often have more predators or (for birds) more brood parasites (Brown-headed Cowbirds)

for example, Battle Park does not have nesting Kentucky Warblers or Hooded Warblers but Mason Farm Biological Reserve does

Conclusion

Orange County has successfully regulated hunting but can barely regulate habitat loss by development -- wildlife use is (in general) prudent -- land use is (in general) a Tragedy of the Commons

Conservation in an undeveloped landscape (department of Loreto, Peru)

Human population

many small villages scattered along primary and secondary rivers -- few medium-sized towns -- one city (Iquitos) -- most people live along rivers (ribernos) -- includes those who identify with indigenous tribes and others who do not (but live almost identical life-styles) -- most people depend on products harvested from forests and small agricultural plots on river islands and shores of rivers (where annual flooding provides fertile soil -- as a result of annual 10 m change in river levels)

Economy

riberenos build their houses from materials harvested in forests (palm logs for wood, palm leaves for thatch, vines for twine) -- food comes mostly from agriculture (mostly cassava and rice, but many minor crops also), fishing, and hunting -- transportation is mostly by dugout canoe -- cash is required for clothing, flashlights and batteries, chain saws, outboard motors, radios, eyeglasses, materials for educating children (clothes, books, pencils, paper), medicine (Peruvian government provides free schools and clinics for basics including free treatment for malaria)

Habitat

native wildlife depends on intact forests and unpolluted rivers and streams (just as in Orange County) -- in contrast to North Carolina vast areas of forest remain virtually undisturbed -- small-scale logging operations take isolated trees -- limited charcoal production uses trees mostly from second-growth forest -- few cattle farms -- few large plantations -- governmental research and policy aimed primarily at encouraging increased use of forests -- officially at least sustainable use is advocated (without discussion of the level of sustainable yield!!) -- difficulties of harvesting timber in tropical forests and transportation limit conversion of forests -- roads difficult to build and maintain in tropical climates -- but every road becomes the center of deforestation extending several kilometers to each side

Wildlife

animals that can be sold for cash (for meat or skins) are virtually absent within a day's hike (10-30 km) of canoeable rivers -- includes large birds, large mammals (large and medium-sized monkeys, deer, tapir, pecarries, large cats), caimans (relatives o f alligators), large fish -- in some places large parrots (including macaws) and other birds sold as pets are scarce

most game and large fish are sold for cash -- river boats carry game to larger towns and city of Iquitos for sale in markets and restaurants -- game and fish are the primary source of cash for riberenos (along with forest fruits of a few species of trees, charcoal, and palm leaves for thatched roofs)

Peruvian law sets seasons for large fish and prohibits hunting of threatened or endangered species (black caiman, jaguar, macaws) -- but no policing -- no game wardens -- when national reserves and parks attempt to exclude local people or prevent hunting, violence often results -- three people wardens killed in 1999 by irrate local hunters -- but every hunter I have spoken to knows that game is getting harder and harder to find

vast forests are mostly empty forests -- Peru has not been able to manage its wildlife populations -- why has Peru not been able to avoid a Tragedy of the Commons in wildlife use?

Conservation

land, unless specifically registered, belongs to the national government -- local communities have registered ownership of areas in their immediate vicinities -- but vast tracts remain in national ownership

one large national wildlife reserve (Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve) -- protected by guards -- communities develop along the border of the reserve in order to exploit the wildlife illegally -- but wildlife is abundant at least in central parts of the reserve

one large community reserve (Tahuayo-Shintuya Community Reserve) -- managed by the communities included in the reserve -- they successfully exclude outside hunters -- not clear that they regulate hunting by their own citizens -- not clear how effectively wildlife is managed -- certainly no conspicuous abundance of wildlife (unlike Orange County)

in 2002 a new national reserve protected a unique habitat on sandy soils -- only 10 miles from the major city of Iquitos -- accessible by road -- much opposition from timber companies -- no regulation of hunting by poachers -- but the city of Iquitos has adopted one of the rarest birds in the world as its mascot (fewer than 20 known pairs restricted to the sandy forests)

Conclusion

In Loreto vast areas of habitat remain intact and some large reserves protect wildlife -- but hunting is a Tragedy of the Commons -- almost a diametrical contrast to Orange County!!

Tragedies of the Commons in Peru and NC: can humans manage their resources prudently?

can a local population police itself (to manage use of wildlife or land) -- without an external superior authority?   what prevents local feuds and coalitions from disrupting Tit-for-tat cooperation?   can local communities in Peru regulate their own hunting?   can local communities in NC regulate their own land use?

what effect does the economic intrusion of outsiders have on local cooperation for management of hunting in Peru?   or development in NC?

how does sequestration of resources and persistence of ownership affect fishing and hunting in Peru or land ownership in NC?